The use of different indicators for interpreting the local knowledge loss on medical plants

ABSTRACT The increasing loss of local ecological knowledge may have negative impacts on the resilience of socio-ecological systems and may also negatively impact bioprospecting efforts, since local ecological knowledge is an important source of information for searching new drugs. Recent studies try to evaluate whether communities are experiencing loss of local ecological knowledge. However, some of them make conclusions which are erroneously based on specific analyses of a single indicator. We propose an integrative analysis of three indicators, namely: number of plants cited by young people and elders, therapeutic choices and people's connectance in terms of medicinal plant learning. The study was carried out in the community of Sucruiuzinho (Bahia, Brazil). We conducted semistructured interviews and a therapeutic recall with 24 local dwellers. We did not find evidence of local ecological knowledge loss in the studied community. Although younger people know fewer plants, they are well connected in terms of knowledge transmission. Moreover, in illness events, young people and adults have similar proportions of choice for plants when compared to allopathy. Concomitant use of the three indicators leads to a more realistic scenario of local ecological knowledge loss than the use of only one of them.

What happens to the soil seed bank 17 years after clear cutting of vegetations? / ¿Qué ocurre con el banco de semillas del suelo 17 años después del corte de la vegetación?

Seed banks play an important role in the resilience of potential anthropogenic areas and are influenced by seasonal variation. The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the forests influences the richness and density of the soil seed bank, but there is a hypothesis that such influence can be changed in anthropogenic areas, where we expect to find lower richness and seed density in relation to the seed bank of mature forests. The richness and seasonal density of seeds in the soil depth of a young caatinga forest, 17 years after an agricultural activity was abandoned, were evaluated and compared with those of a mature forest. The study was conducted at the Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco - IPA (Estação Experimental José Nilson de Melo), located in Caruaru, Pernambuco, Brazil, in an area of tropical dry forest, known locally as “caatinga”. The local climate is seasonal, the dry season occurring from September to February and the rainy season concentrated in the remaining months. The average annual rainfall over time (time series of 30 years) is 692mm. In each climatic season (rainy and dry), the seed bank was sampled in 210 20x20cm plots (105 in the leaf litter and 105 at 5cm soil depth). The richness and seed density of the soil samples were evaluated by the method of seedling emergence. The seed bank had 47 species, with a predominance of herbaceous plants. Seasonal variation in richness and seed density in the soil (leaf litter + soil) was not significant, but 42 species of the mature forest were absent from the seed bank of the young forest, despite 17 years of natural regeneration and its proximity to the mature forest. On its own, the soil has greater richness and density of seeds than the leaf litter. The depth of seed deposition in the soil bank of the young forest significantly explained 36% of the species richness and 16% of the seed density, with a significant interaction effect with the climatic season only on species richness, explaining 4% of the variation recorded. The seed density of the young forest (1 277seeds/m²) was greater than that the mature forest indicating that the time abandoned had not yet been sufficient for complete recovery of plant diversity and there is no longer any seed limitation of pioneer species for regeneration of the young forest. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (2): 321-332. Epub 2015 June 01.

El banco de semillas juega un papel importante en el potencial de resiliencia de las áreas antropogénicas y sufre influencia de las variaciones estacionales. La heterogeneidad espacial y temporal de los bosques influye en la riqueza y la densidad del banco de semillas del suelo, pero hay una hipótesis de que tal influencia se puede cambiar en las zonas antropogénicas, donde esperaríamos encontrar menor riqueza y densidad de semillas en relación con el banco de semillas de los bosques maduros. La riqueza y la densidad estacional de semillas del espacio vertical del suelo de un bosque joven, con 17 años de abandono de cualquier actividad agrícola, fueron evaluadas y comparadas con las un bosque maduro. El estudio se realizó en el Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco - IPA (Estação Experimental José Nilson de Melo), situado en Caruarú, Pernambuco, Brasil, en una zona de bosque seco tropical, conocida localmente como “caatinga”. El clima local es estacional, la estación seca ocurre de septiembre a febrero y la estación de lluvias en los meses restantes. La precipitación promedio anual (series de tiempo de 30 años) es 692mm. En cada estación climática (lluviosa y seca), el banco de semillas fue muestreado en 210 parcelas de 20x20cm (105 en la hojarasca a 5cm de profundidad del suelo). La riqueza y densidad de semillas de las muestras del suelo fueron evaluadas por el método de emergencia de plántulas. El banco de semillas presentó 47 especies, con una predominancia de las herbáceas. Las variaciones estacionales de riqueza y densidad de semillas del suelo (hojarasca+suelo) no fueron significativas, pero 42 especies del bosque maduro todavía estaban ausentes en el banco de semillas del bosque joven, apesar de los 17 años de regeneración natural y de su proximidad con el bosque maduro. Aisladamente, el suelo presentó mayor riqueza y densidad de semillas que la hojarasca. La profundidad de depósito de semillas en el banco del suelo del bosque joven explicó significativamente 36% de la riqueza de especies y 16% de la densidad de semillas, con efecto significativo de interacción con la estación climática apenas sobre la riqueza de las especies, explicando más de 4% de la variación registrada. La densidad de semillas del bosque joven (1 277semillas/m²) fue más elevada que la del bosque maduro indicando, que a pesar del poco tiempo de abandono del cultivo, fue suficiente para la recuperación completa de la densidad de semillas.

What is the role of exotic medicinal plants in local medical systems? A study from the perspective of utilitarian redundancy

Medicinal plants are an important aspect of local medical systems. The composition of a medicinal plant collection is influenced by cultural and environmental factors. Additionally, the functionality of a local medical system can be threatened by the replacement of native species with exotic ones, as well as by cultural factors such as the erosion of knowledge. The objectives of this study are: 1) examine the composition of the medicinal plant collection of two rural communities settled in the caatinga (savanna-like vegetation) of the state of Pernambuco (Brazil); 2) observe the role of exotic plants in the local medical systems; and 3) identify the profile of the species utilized according to the Utilitarian Redundancy Model. Similarities were observed between the medicinal floras of the communities studied, emphasizing the importance of the surrounding biome within the possibilities of species selection, although exotic species appear to contribute by increasing the diversity of species considered in the communities to be medicinal. The native species act broadly among the body systems recognized in the two communities, whereas exotic species act in specific body systems, for which there are few associated native species.

Ethnopharmacological study of Stryphnodendron rotundifolium in two communities in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil

This work describes the local knowledge of the medicinal use of Stryphnodendron rotundifolium Mart., Fabaceae, according to informants in two areas of the Araripe bioregion, in the Northeast Region of Brazil. We used interviews to investigate the ethnomedicinal use of the local species to determine the mode of use, frequency of administration, duration of treatment and restrictions of use. In traditional medicine, the use of S. rotundifolium is associated with the treatment of inflammatory and infectious diseases. The part of the plant most used was the stem bark (86.11%), the predominant mode of preparation was immersion in water (52.83%), and oral administration was the most cited (48.43%). For inflammatory and infectious diseases, the treatment lasted 3-10 days and the frequency of administration was 2-3 times/day. For gastroprotective effects, treatment lasted up to 30 days, and the herb was administered 1-3 times/day. For pain complaints, the therapy varied from 2-3 days to continuous administration.The informants (46.87%) did not mention restrictions of use, except for pregnant women, with a rate of 25%. A comparison of these results with the ethnopharmacological information from other studies showed that some of the traditional indications are scientifically supported by the literature or clinical studies. Nevertheless, the results showed that pharmacologists have not fully investigated all the possible bioactivities that healers credit to this plant. .

Are ethnopharmacological surveys useful for the discovery and development of drugs from medicinal plants?

Ethnopharmacological and ethnobotanical approaches are described in the literature as efficient to identify plants of interest for phytochemical and pharmacological studies. In the present work, we reflect on the quality of the data collected in ethno-directed studies. In accordance to the problems identified in published studies, and their theoretical and methodological underpinnings, we believe that these studies are poorly suited to contribute to the advancement of research aimed at the development of novel drugs.

Acute toxicity study of stone-breaker (Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb)

Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb. é nativa do Brasil, mais frequentemente em ambientes úmidos, e usada para o tratamento de litíase urinária, doença inflamatória intestinal, diabetes e hepatite B. Neste trabalho objetiva-se determinar a toxicidade aguda e DL50 do extrato aquoso de P. tenellus em animais de laboratório e avaliar o seu comportamento. A DL50 por via intraperitoneal foi calculada pelo método de Karber e Behrens (1964), em que o extrato alcoólico a 96% foi concentrado em evaporador rotativo. Utilizou-se camundongos albinos (Mus musculus) machos, divididos em 3 lotes de seis animais. Eles foram observados por 24 horas a partir da administração do extrato diluído em solução fisiológica a 0,9% nas dosagens de 500; 1000; 1500; 2000; 2500 mg/kg. Estudos de curto prazo têm demonstrado que esta planta não é considerada tóxica, porém, constatamos que esta espécie provoca agitação nos animais por movimentos estereotipados, espasmos, e um aumento da frequência respiratória, bem como ações de depressão, tais como: sonolência, prostração, dispneia e diminuição da frequência respiratória.

Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb. is a herbaceous plant native to Brazil and appears frequently in humid environments. This plant is used to treat urolithiasis, inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes and hepatitis B. The acute toxicity and LD50 of an aqueous extract of P. tenellus were determined in laboratory mice and their behavior was analyzed. The intraperitoneal LD50 was calculated by the Karber & Behrens (1964) method, for which a 96% alcoholic extract was concentrated in a rotary evaporator. Male albino mice (Mus musculus) were divided into three batches of six animals and observed for 24 hours after administration of the extract, diluted in 0.9% saline, at doses of 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 mg / kg. Short-term studies have demonstrated this plant to be non-toxic; however, we found that this species induced agitation in animals, with stereotyped movements, spasms and increased respiratory frequency, as well as signs of depression, such as sleepiness, prostration, dyspnea and a reduction in respiratory frequency.

Phytochemical and pharmacological notes of plants indicated to treat tumors in Brazil

The plants used in traditional medicine have been considered an important source of molecules with pharmacological activity, including antitumor. The aim of this study was to present a pharmacological description and the phytochemical components related to antitumor activity of thirty plants commonly cited in Brazil to treat tumors as well as offering an overview of approaches that are necessary for the development of herbal medicines from these resources. In the search for studies with these plants, five database were used (SciELO, Scirus, Scopus, Biological Abstracts and Web of Science), with the following keywords: tumor AND Species AND cancer. We consider all the scientific synonyms of species available in the Tropicos® database (http://www.tropicos.org/). We surveyed papers from the period between 1980 and 2008. Twnety one species (70 percent) have at least one evaluation of a class of molecule or metabolite isolated against a pharmacological model. Most species (60 percent) has in vivo studies. Of the thirty plant species, two stood out for having pharmacological studies in vitro, in vivo and clinical with positive results: Chelidonium majus L., Papaveraceae, and Aloe arborescens Mill., Xanthorrhoeaceae. Although there is generally a good activity of species presented here, there is a need for further studies in order to evaluate the possibility of developing some byproduct.

The tragedy of the common reviewers: the peer review process

The peer review process is the dominant system adopted in science to evaluate the quality of articles submitted for publication. Various social players are involved in this process, including authors, editors and reviewers. Much has been discussed about the need to improve the scientific quality of what is published. The main focus of these discussions has been the work of the authors. However, the editors and reviewers also fulfill an important role. In this opinion article, we discuss some proposals to improve the peer review system, emphasizing the role of reviewers and editors.

Are hallucinogenic plants efficacious in curing diseases?: [review] / Son eficaces las sustancias alucinógenas en la curación de enfermedades?: [revisión]

The ethnobotanical, anthropological and ethnopharmacological literature has shown a strong relationship between hallucinogenic plants and medical efficacy. Despite evidence from previous studies, many issues have not been discussed clearly enough to enable acceptance of this relationship. This study uses a literature survey to track how different authors have dealt with the issue and what future research opportunities may emerge.

La literatura etnobotánica, antropológica y etnofarmacológica ha señalado una fuerte relación entre las plantas alucinógenas y su efectividad como medicamento. A pesar de todas las pruebas e informes, hay muchas cuestiones que no están claramente discutidas para permitir la aceptación de esta idea. En este trabajo, a partir de una investigación bibliográfica, nos proponemos investigar cómo diferentes autores se han ocupado de la cuestión y cuáles son las posibilidades de investigación que puedan emerger de esto.

Validação de metodologia espectrofotométrica para quantificação dos flavonóides de Bauhinia cheilantha (Bongard) Steudel / Validation of spectrophotometric methodology for quantify flavonoid content in Bauhinia cheilantha (Bongard) Steudel

Os laboratórios de fitoterápicos necessitam de metodologias que assegurem o controle de qualidade de seus produtos quando os mesmos não constam em farmacopéias ou monografias oficiais. Baseando-se neste fato, o presente estudo visou validar umametodologia analítica para quantificação de flavonóides contidos nos extratos da pata-de-vaca (Bauhinia cheilantha [Bongard] Steudel), através de espectrofotometria no visível, como equivalentes de Rutina (μg/mL). Todos os parâmetros exigidos pela ANVISA foram avaliados. No teste de especificidade, observou-se a existência de pico máximo a 420 nm. O método foi considerado linear e com alta sensibilidade de quantificação (2,51 μg/mL). O método também mostrou-se robusto e com elevada recuperação (98,36%). Os resultados obtidos para repetibilidade (intra-corrida), precisãointermediária (inter-corridas) e reprodutibilidade certificaram a precisão do método com valores entre 0,31 e 3,58%, sendo também considerado exato (95,71-105,50%). Com este estudo, o método proposto foi considerado específico, preciso, reprodutível, exato, de baixo custo e fácil execução.

Phytotherapeutic laboratories require access to methodologies that guarantee quality control for their products when these items are not already registered in pharmacopeias or official monographs. As such, the present study sought to validate analytical methodologies for quantifying natural flavonoids contained in extracts of ôpata-de-vacaõ (Bauhinia cheilantha [Bong.] Steudel) using visible light spectrophotometry and a rutin standard (μg/ml). All of the parameters required by ANVISA were evaluated. The specificity test revealed a maximum absorption peak at 420 nm. The methodology was considered linear and of high quantification sensitivity(2.51 μg/ml). The methodology also proved to be robust, and had high recovery levels (98.36%). The results obtained for repeatability, intermediate precision (intra and inter-day), and reproducibility all certified the precision of the method, with values between 0.31 and 3.58%; the methodology was also considered exact (95.71-105.50%). This study demonstrated that the proposed methodology can be considered specific, precise, reproducible, exact, of low cost, and easy to perform.

Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd. ] Poir. ): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology

Numerous plant species are used throughout the world to achieve the modified states of conscientiousness. Some of them have been used for the therapeutic purposes, such as Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd) Poir. (family Mimosaceae) known as "jurema-preta", an hallucinogenic plant traditionally used for curing and divination by the Indians of northeastern Brazil. In this review, several aspects of the use, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of this plant are considered.

Numerosas espécies de plantas são usadas para alterar estados de consciência. Algumas são utilizadas para fins terapêuticos, como Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd) Poir. (Mimosaceae) conhecida como "jurema-preta", uma planta alucinógena, tradicionalmente utilizada pelos índios no nordeste do Brasil. Nesta revisão, são considerados diversos aspectos do uso, fitoquímica e farmacologia desta planta.

As pesquisas etnodirigidas na descoberta de novos fármacos de interesse médico e farmacêutico: fragilidades e pespectivas / Ethnodirected research in the discovery of new drugs of medical and pharmaceutical interest: flaws and perspectives

As investigações etnofarmacológicas e etnobotânicas têm sido a principal abordagem reconhecida por cientistas em todo o mundo, como uma estratégia de seleção de plantas medicinais. As qualidades e fortalezas dessas abordagens já foram suficientemente discutidas, restando poucas dúvidas de seu potencial e impactos biológicos, econômicos e sociais. Este artigo focaliza os estudos etnodirigidos (etnobotânicos e etnofarmacológicos) levantando os problemas encontrados na qualidade das pesquisas, que podem afetar a sua aplicação na descoberta de novos fármacos de interesse médico e farmacêutico. Adicionalmente, apontamos alguns elementos que podem colaborar para a melhoria da qualidade das abordagens e publicações e que podem ser aplicados a diferentes estudos etnodirigidos. Nós também sugerimos que os investigadores reconsiderem algumas das abordagens dominantes, bem como a visão, não raro simplista, desses estudos.

Ethnopharmacological and ethnobotanical investigations have been the main approach used by scientists all over the world as a strategy to select medicinal plants. The qualities and strengths of these approaches have been sufficiently discussed, and there are a few doubts left in relation to their potential and biological, economic, and social impacts. This article focuses on ethnodirected studies (ethnopharmacological and ethnobotanical), raising problems found in the quality of these studies. In addition, we point out some elements that might contribute to the improvement of approaches and publications that can be applied to different ethnodirected studies. We also suggest that researchers reconsider some of the dominant approaches, as well as the view of these studies, which is often simplistic.

Can apparency affect the use of plants by local people in tropical forests?

Los Etnobotánicos generalmente asumen que un aumento en la abundancia de una planta implica en aumento de su importancia relativa local. Esta idea, basada en una predicción simple de la hipótesis de la apariencia, sugiere que las personas tenderán a usar plantas que son fáciles de encontrar. Desde que esta predicción se formuló en los años 90, investigadores del campo han demostrado a menudo las relaciones (frecuentemente positivas) entre los parámetros estructurales de una comunidad de plantas y la manera en que las comunidades locales usan estos recursos; pero no hay ninguna evidencia consistente para afirmar que estas relaciones son constantes. Se discute la importancia de examinar la hipótesis de la apariencia en las regiones tropicales por lo que se refiere a la conservación, y estrategias del investigación del potencial farmacológico de plantas medicinales

Estudo farmacognóstico de Indigofera microcarpa Desv. (Fabaceae) / Pharmacognostical study of Indigofera microcarpa Desv. (Fabaceae)

O estudo farmacognóstico de Indigofera microcarpa Desv. (Fabaceae) foi realizado enfocando aspectos farmacobotânicos e fitoquímicos para fins diagnósticos. A anatomia das folhas, caule e raízes foi descrita e a presença de características típicas da família e do gênero Indigofera foram confirmadas. A triagem fitoquímica revelou a presença de fenóis, taninos, flavanonas, esteróides, triterpenóides, saponinas e bases quaternárias

Uso de recursos vegetais da caatinga: o caso do agreste do Estado de Pernambuco (Nordeste do Brasil) / The use of plant resources of caatinga: the case of farmers in the State of Pernambuco (Brasilian Northeast)

Se presentan los resultados de un estudio sobre el conocimiento y uso de los recursos vegetales en una comunidad campesina en el semiárido del Estado de Pernambuco (Brasil). Son descritos y comentados los usos de 75 especies, indicadas por un grupo de 30 campesinos, especialmente para fines medicinales y comestibles. Se hizo una evaluación de las especies más importantes con base en criterios cuantitativos. Entre las especies citadas, son importantes: Spondias tuberosa Arr. Cam., Anacardium occidental L., Amburana cearensis (Arr. Cam) A.C Smith, Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. e Schult.) T.D. Penn., Lippia alba (Mill) Brow, Opuntia ficus-indica Mill., Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan var. cebil (Griseb) Altschul, Psidium guajava L., Hymenaea courbaril L. y Myracrodruon urundeuva (Engl.) Fr. All.. Se evaluó también la disponibilidad temporal de los recursos vegetales, así como las formas de manejo observadas

Uso e conservaçao de plantas e animais medicinais no Etado de Pernambuco (nordeste do Brasil): um estudo de caso / Use and conservation conservation of medicinal plansts and animals in pernambuco State (northeast brasil): a case study

Se hizo un estudio sobre el uso y conocimiento de plantas y animales medicinales de los vendedores de estos recursos en la Feria de Caruaru (comprende varios mercados), "Agreste" de Pernambuco, Nordeste de Brasil. fueron los objetivos: evaluar la importancia relativa que tienen las especies de plantas y animales; las categorias de enfermedades para las cuales se emplean animales y plantas; estudiar la variación intracultural del conocimiento tradicional sobre los recursos. Las plantas más importantes en cuanto a su importancia relativa son: Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. e Schult.) T.D. Penn.; Hymenaea sp.; Myracrodruon urundeuva (Engl.) Fr. All.; Stryphnodendron sp.; entre los animales tenemos Melipoma scutellaris; Crotalus sp.; Carcharhinus leucas; Caiman cf. latirostris; Epicrates ceuchria xerophilus y Phrynops sp. Los informantes tuvieron gran consenso al prescribir plantas para las enfermedades sensoriales, respiratorias, nerviosas y genitourinarias. En relación a los animales se destacaron las enfermedades digestivas, respiratorias, osteomusculares y del tejido conectivo. No hubo una gran variación en el conocimiento de los entrevistados, sugiriendo que el sistema cultural de la feria es basado en la socialización de saberes. Desde el punto de vista de la conservación, las plantas más importantes son las más vulnerables. Entre los animales se observa especies en extinción